Hong Kong Institute of Education
Abstract:
A study was conducted in Egypt to investigate how technology is used in English language instruction at the university level. Results indicate that teachers and learners alike are ready and, in some cases (mostly in the private-university setting), are effectively applying technology tools in the classroom and online. Specific findings indicate teachers' readiness to use technology tools in the teaching of English language skills in Egypt because of their belief that technology is both affectively and pedagogically useful to high-quality instruction. At the same time, teachers are fully aware of their needs and limits in linking technology with classroom instruction. Details on these and other results are presented.
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND FOR THE STUDY
In the spring and summer of 2003, a survey was conducted of 68 teachers of English in universities in Egypt. The study was designed to provide some preliminary answers to several questions about how teachers use technology in English classrooms. The purpose of this survey was to give teachers and teacher educators a clearer direction than they currently have for using technology in the classroom and in online English instruction in Egypt and other countries in the developing world.
On the basis of a review of literature on CALL and extensive discussions with teachers and teacher educators in Egypt, it became clear that there is relatively little general information on English language teaching in Egypt and even less on the role of technology in English language teaching. Few studies were found in the scholarly literature, though there are several government statistics available (United Nations Development Programme Arab Fund for Economic and
* The author wishes to thank the American University in Cairo, Office of Graduate Studies, for a grant that supported the completion of the research reported upon here while she was at the American University. She also thanks the English Language Institute for graduate student support. Finally, she wishes to acknowledge the three anonymous reviewers for their useful comments and helpful guidance in preparing this article.
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Social Development, 2003). Scholarly works include the work by Holliday (1994); Warschauer (2003); Ahmed, Corbett, Rogers, and Sussez (1987); and Gahin and Myhill (2001). There are a few graduate theses on the subject from the American University in Cairo and in the Gulf. Apart from those, the literature on this topic is limited to a few internal publications of the Ministry of Education in Egypt (e.g., see The Egyptian Society for Development and Childhood and the Ministry of Education, 1993, 1996). In view of relatively little published research and with the role of technology and English language in recent education reform efforts in Egypt [a major conference on this topic was held in March 2005], the time is right for addressing questions about how technology is used by university English teachers in Egypt.
The researcher wanted to understand the role and status of technology use in four areas: learning, teaching, research, and teacher education. In addition, two questions have been repeatedly raised about the role and status of technology use in English language teaching in the Middle East:
1. What can survey research tell us about teachers' use of technology in English classes in Egypt?
2. What recommendations might be made based on this research to improve English language teaching and teacher education in Egyptian universities?
PROCEDURES FOR DATA COLLECTION
A survey addressing teachers' use of technology in English language classrooms was developed by a group of three experienced English language teachers. The survey respondents were English language teachers in universities in Egypt who completed the survey voluntarily and anonymously during or immediately before or after a meeting or other professional gathering on their campuses.
The respondents were chosen on the basis of their willingness to participate in the study. Participation was anonymous. Most respondents completed the survey in 20 minutes. Some asked for clarification on individual questions while they were completing the survey; the on-site researcher or assistant answered those questions on an individual basis. Conducting survey research in Egypt can be problematic, and every effort was made to assure that the project reveal reliable information, though the research team faced some challenges.
The survey was developed in two stages. The first stage involved three researchers: one native English speaker with experience in Egypt and two Egyptian researchers who had worked as English language teachers and researchers for many years and who had also trained teachers in technology applications in Egypt. In the first stage, the survey was administered to a group of five nonnative speakers of English enrolled in a teacher-training program in Cairo. The final version of the survey instrument was developed based on feedback on this draft. Egyptian research assistants distributed and administered the surveys at teachers' gatherings in six cities, at national and private universities, and at a teachers' conference. The respondents completed the surveys under supervision of the research assistant. The surveys were collected and data entered into a spreadsheet program.
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Interviews were then carried out with several subjects (see the survey instrument and the interview protocol in the appendix to this article).
Surveys have been used in a variety of educational and sociological studies for 50 years in Egypt, and survey research is generally accepted in the country. However, the project team encountered many challenges to the survey research approach used in this study. The team addressed these challenges by talking with teachers who agreed to describe their use of technology in follow-up interviews. These teachers' responses to the interview questions were very helpful in clarifying the results obtained in the survey. We believe that the data reported here reflect relatively accurate responses.
Subjects
The 68 respondents in this study represented three groups of university level teachers in Egypt. Fifty teachers were from Egyptian national universities (funded by the Egyptian government), and 18 taught in private universities (funded by donors and student tuition fees). One respondent taught in a national university and at a private university part-time. The following is a brief description of the two contexts of university-level education in Egypt.
National Egyptian Universities
National Egyptian universities are free of tuition fees to Egyptian citizens. In a given year, 500,000 students enroll, for example, at Cairo University, one of the 16 national universities across the country. Students are placed in individual faculties on the basis of their high-school exit examination scores ("thaanawayya aamma"). English language requirements for admission to university faculties (see Holliday, 1994) are not separated from overall admission, and the requirements vary from faculty to faculty. If students are graduates of a language school, it is assumed that their English skills are high enough to compete with other students in classes.
Students who graduate from government schools may require language support. Content-based English classes are sometimes available, but, in general, students are assigned textbook readings in English while Arabic is used in class, mostly large lecture classes. English literature, taught in the Faculty of Arts, is one setting where English language is taught. In classes in this faculty, technology tools are sometimes used. It was from these teachers that a sample of national-university teachers was drawn.
In the national universities, teachers have large classes, and, in many cases, attendance by students is irregular. Sometimes, teachers are assigned to classrooms that are unavailable. The courses often continue from the time of enrollment until (or near to) the completion of the academic course of study. In cases in which technology tools are available, those tools include overhead projectors and audiocassette recorders. In very few cases, computer laboratories are regularly accessible to teachers. Rarely is there a reliable Internet connection.
A notable exception is the CALL lab at the Alexandria University, which is
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supervised by a trained computer lab professional, equipped with some software and an Internet connection, and regularly accessible to students. This lab was originally equipped by the United States Agency in International Development. Until very recently when the lab "crumbled," according to one teacher, the lab was a model of instruction. Due to a variety of technical problems, teachers no longer have an Internet connection; they must download materials from the web for use in their classes on other computers (personal communication). This situation has created significant discouragement, severe morale problems, and little enthusiasm for applying technology tools in the English classrooms at Alexandria University. In Cairo, there is a computer laboratory at the Cairo University, but teachers are not allowed to reserve it for instructional purposes without paying a substantial fee, a fee that is beyond their financial means. Some Cairo University professors use the facilities at the Mubarak Library, which is located close to the campus, for instruction requiring Internet access or involving word-processing assignments.
Private Egyptian Universities
Private universities offer a variety of educational opportunities for the Egyptian elite. In rare cases, scholarships are awarded to those who cannot afford the relatively expensive fees required by the private universities. At the time of this writing (2004), there were more than a dozen private, English-medium universities in Cairo.
Instructional opportunities for English language teachers in the private Egyptian universities are significantly greater than in the national universities. Most universities are equipped with fast Internet connections (some wireless), laboratory facilities for instructional use and for self-access, and smart classrooms. In many of these universities, administrative leadership encourages faculty members to engage in ongoing professional development to improve their skills. Workshops, both face-to-face and online, are available for faculty and address a variety of topics on using instructional software packages and assessment tools. Most faculty have email addresses associated with the institution and many are regular contributors to local and national electronic lists designed for use by English language teaching professionals. In many cases, scheduling of classes in "smart classrooms" is competitive, and many English teachers are eager to use them.
In private Egyptian universities, English language programs--most often organized around a skills-based curriculum (listening, speaking, reading and writing)--are "service units," providing support for the academic (English-medium) curriculum. Attendance is mandatory and contributes to the students' end-of-semester grades. In most private universities, a minimal level of English proficiency is published and is a condition for admission. English classes are offered early in a students' degree programs, rather than throughout their study, as in the national universities. Technology use differs significantly between students in private universities, where resources are far more plentiful, and in national universities, where very few computer facilities are available.
The researchers expected to find that there would be significant differences
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between the responses of teachers working in national- versus private-university settings. In some cases, this difference was observed; in others, it was not. The following section describes several aspects of national versus private universities. In those cases where the differences between national and private-university teachers' responses were not significantly different, the sample was collapsed into a single group. Where differences were significant, notations are made in the text below and in the Analysis section below.
RESULTS
We collected data that provided insights into a variety of issues relevant to the use of technology for effective English language instruction among learners in the region, all Arabic speakers. A summary of data appears below, divided into six categories:
1. instructor characteristics,
2. use of technology tools for instruction,
3. content of technology-based instruction,
4. instructional effects of technology use,
5. censorship in technology use, and
6. value of technology (noninstructional effects)
Instructor Characteristics
Years of teaching
A key instructor characteristic was the number of years of teaching. There was a wide range of teaching experience among the teachers. (One teacher had been teaching for 37 years.) The majority of teachers fell into one of two groups: 10 years or fewer or 2 years or fewer. With over 700 years of accumulated teaching experience and an average of 11 years, the teachers offered potentially useful insights in technology use.
Teaching assignments
We were interested in knowing in which types of English language programs the teachers worked. Table 1 lists the types of programs.
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Note: Most teachers have multiple assignments.
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Access to computer facilities
Teachers had access to computer facilities at home and at work. Most teachers in this study accessed computers at home (n = 65), while 42 used computers at work. Only 15 of the 68 subjects said that they went to an Internet café to access computer facilities.
Purpose of computer use
Most of the teachers used computers for a variety of purposes. It was clear from their reports that teachers found computer use to be an activity with which they were comfortable enough to use independently (see Table 2).
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How the teachers learned to use computers
Open-ended responses to the question on how the subjects learned to use computers fell into six major categories (see Table 3).
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Note: Most teachers listed more than one source of learning.
Teacher training in technology
When asked how they learned about computer facilities and the Internet, teacher responses were many and varied. Handwritten responses included "don't remember,"
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"picked it up" on their own, family member help, and formal training, and so forth. Almost all of the teachers (60 out of 68) indicated some experience in having learned to use technology. Subjects' reports on the location of training were of particular interest (see Table 4).
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a Institution refers to either an academic institute or to a development agency's education project
b Conference in Egypt refers to a professional conference such as an EgypTESOL event.
The majority of respondents reported that their training was done either outside of Egypt or by a non-Egyptian trainer in Egypt. All training in technology reported by the teachers came from sources outside of Egypt.
Teachers' self-assessed technology skills
For the purposes of this study, a "beginner" was defined as a teacher who had very little knowledge about CALL (no coursework, some knowledge of how to use a computer, and a few hours of experience with the web). A "struggler" was a teacher with the same experience as a beginner, but used a "trial and error" approach to using computers. "Strugglers" often tried to use computers in instructional tasks but, not knowing how to use computers at the beginning of the task, kept at it until they figured it out by asking for help or going it alone. "Experienced" teachers were those who had used CALL and the web for some time. They regularly assigned tasks to students requiring CALL knowledge and/or skills.
The researchers were also interested in teachers' assessment of their own technology skills. Most of the national-university teachers considered themselves as either "strugglers" or "experienced," and the private-university teachers generally viewed themselves as "experienced" (see Table 5).
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The differences in the data between the national-university teachers assessing themselves as "strugglers" and "experienced" were not great. Only three called themselves "beginners." This finding is addressed below.
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Most respondents wrote comments in this section on the source of their computer learning. Those comments can be divided into three categories: (a) family member, colleague, or friend; (b) course (one sponsored by a private university or others by a foreign aid program); and (c) books and magazines.
There are many possible explanations for respondents' self-assessments. First, because the teachers voluntarily participated in this study, a "self-selection" sampling error in favor of those with a particular interest in technology may have biased the results. Furthermore, the self-assessment here may have indicated comfort level with technology. In designing the study, "beginner," "struggler," and "experienced" seemed appropriate to the sample, but the item had limited discriminatory power.
Teachers' evaluation of available technology tools
Teachers were asked to evaluate the equipment available to them in their classrooms. The responses by the teachers in national universities were consistently negative; all responded to each item in this question with "Way Behind" or "Non-existent." For the private-university teachers, the following results were compiled (see Table 6):
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Notes: a = Xerox printer; b = opaque projector
Teachers' use of email
Sixty-six teachers reported using email, and only one reported not using email.
Contexts of Use of Technology Tools for Instruction
In what contexts did the teachers use technology? To answer this question, we asked the teachers to identify the contexts of technology use for instruction and to describe how they used these tools. All teachers who used technology in their classrooms did so either on their own (in their own classes) or with other teachers. There were no other contexts in which teachers used technological tools for instruction (e.g., language labs).
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Content of Technology-based Instruction
Teachers' use of Internet assignments
How did teachers use Internet-based assignments with their students? Among those who used Internet tools, 57 teachers used it to teach (as part of their instruction), 31 for testing, and 26 for finding materials and information for their lesson plans. Sixty of the teachers said that they asked students to use the Internet for homework or other assignments.
More than half the teachers (29) used web search assignments. Another 17 teachers indicated that a web search assignment was an option for their students. Most of the teachers provided URLs to their students and either required them (n = 17) or suggested to them (n = 21) that they investigate the web sites outside the classroom. Most teachers reported making web assignments once or twice per month, but some reported considerably more use of the web in the classroom (see Table 7).
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Teachers' use of email
As mentioned earlier, only one teacher reported not using email communication. The 66 teachers who used email described their frequency of use and the recipients of the messages they sent (see Table 8).
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Most of the teachers communicated with students, colleagues, or other professional or personal acquaintances by email weekly or more often (daily, n = 87; weekly, n = 61). Twenty-four teachers reported weekly or more frequent email communication with students. Teachers communicated with other teachers slightly more often than they did with students (n = 28). Email contacts with professionals (n = 25) was more frequent than contacts with students. Significantly, 26 teachers reported never communicating via email with any of the groups identified; all the teachers in this group were in national universities.
Software use
More than half the teachers (30) said that they have used instructional software. The most popular software packages were dictionaries, Hot Potatoes, TOEFL preparation packages, Learn to Speak English, CD Encyclopedia, Rapid Reader, Azar Word Attack, Mavis Beacon, Focus on Grammar, Grammar Parlance, and Ultimate Speed Reader. The most popular web sites were Crossword.com and games. Others reported they did not use software because it was not available.
The kind of software products used by the teachers included voice recognition, language translators, language acquisition programs (e.g., grammar and vocabulary building), quiz, drill, skill building, and connections to network resources.
The teachers were asked to identify three ways they used technology. Most (n = 44) reported some technology use in their own class. Fewer reported (n = 16) coordinating with other language teachers. Finally, only 6 reported the use of technology coordination with a teacher of another subject.
How did the teachers use the web? Results showed that teachers used the web mainly as a resource for teaching materials (n = 46), test materials (n = 24) and lesson plans (n = 20). Other uses included web site design, WebCT, practice exercises, research, and email.
Most instructors (47) made various types of web assignments (see Table 9).
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*All of these teachers were in private universities. The other categories included teachers in both national and private universities.
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Those who used computer materials did so for teaching listening, writing, reading, and grammar. Fewer used computer materials for speaking, study skills, culture, content areas, and English for specific purposes.
The focus of the question on software use was teachers' use of technology in the classroom. But in addition to this question, the researchers wanted to better understand which skills teachers felt that students might benefit from, if the same teachers had access to new and/or different technology tools. The teachers' responses are summarized in Table 10.
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*The "other" category included typing, communication skills, vocabulary building, speed reading, knowledge of literature, references for research projects, literary background, and access to criticism on literature.
Instructional Effects of Technology Use
In addition to the value of technology for learning language skills, the teachers identified the following other skill areas in which they considered computers to be important.
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The teachers were also asked about whether and to what extent they felt that technology facilitates student learning. The results summarized in Table 12 were culled from the teachers' handwritten responses.
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Note: Most subjects (60) marked and/or wrote comments in several categories.
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The teachers knew their students very well. When asked what they thought the effect of using technology on their students was, the teachers overwhelmingly identified the positive effects of technology use on affective factors (increased motivation and better self-image), as well as better general communication skills and improved reading and writing. These findings are consistent with those reported by Warschauer (1997), Chapelle (2000), and Stevens (2003).
Use of computers for testing
The researchers were interested in learning more about the use of computers for testing and asked the teachers whether they used computers for testing purposes. The majority of teachers (42) said they did not, but 26 teachers (all 18 in the private universities and 8 in national universities) said they did.
Censorship in Technology Use
Did the English teachers in Egypt believe that censorship should be exercised? Why or why not? Of the 68 teachers in this sample, 54 answered this question and 14 did not. Of the 54 who answered the question, there were affirmative and negative responses from teachers in both national and private universities. Specific findings included 36 teachers who said that they believed that censorship should be practiced in English language teaching in Egypt, while 19 said that it should not. Some of the written comments indicated that the teachers interpreted "censorship" as a means by which teachers preview and evaluate web-based materials prior to assigning them. For example, one teacher who agreed that censorship should be practiced wrote, "I would never assign web-based materials without reviewing them first for appropriate content." The following list is representative of the comments provided by teachers who answered this question affirmatively:
1. to avoid any negative transfer of inappropriate cultural materials, variety-age may lead to bad behavior,
2. teachers should choose sites which are relevant so in a sense they are censoring nonserious sites,
3. we should teach them what is appropriate and the lab supervisor should check on them,
4. students like to wander to various sites while teachers aren't looking,
5. students cannot focus when given complete freedom,
6. culturally insensitive materials distract students,
7. teachers can work together to make a list of sites--both useful and appropriate--for students,
8. barred sites create a distraction,
9. we have to choose material that is relevant,
10. we need to make the students concentrate,
11. we must prevent misbehavior,
12. we should stop unsuitable ads/sites,
13. we want to control the language for the sake of the target objectives of the lesson,
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14. maybe it raises awareness to censorship, and
15. immoral films and programs are displayed.
The distinction between responsible previewing of instructional materials should not be confused with censorship, forbidding students to visit sites of their choosing. It is clear that some teachers who said that they favor censorship may have confused censorship with previewing instructional materials.
Still, other teachers emphatically reported that the web, being unmonitored and "free for anyone to use" should not be used in teaching English. In spite of the possible underlying confusion in responses, the number of teachers (36)who said they believed that web-based instruction should be censored suggests the need for follow-up investigation of this belief and what may underlie it (see Analysis section below).
Value of Technology (Noninstructional Effects)
Were the teachers convinced of the value of technology in English language teaching in terms of expenditures of time, money, and effort to acquire and use it? Fifty-six respondents said that it was worthwhile to spend the money to acquire new technology tools, 56 said technology was worth the time it took to learn how to use it, and 62 said that they were willing to put in the effort necessary to learn technology tools.
ANALYSIS
The findings in this study are generally convincing and suggest a clear trend toward use of technology in instruction at the tertiary level by teachers of English as a foreign language in Egypt. While distinctions between national and private universities exist, at least some basic knowledge and skills in using technological tools to enhance instruction in classrooms in both institutional contexts is apparent. In many cases, teachers reported a desire to continue building their skills and knowledge in the use of technological tools. At the same time, teachers reported specific, and sometimes severe, constraints on their ability to use technology in the classroom, as well as limits on their knowledge and skills in doing so.
Overcoming Obstacles to Technology Access
Regular use of technology tools in Egypt is fraught with difficulty. Teachers reported seldom being able to use computers for instructional purposes on a regular basis. Large classes and irregular schedules, particularly in national universities, create conditions in which programs rarely can support regular computer access and meet the needs of their teachers. In addition to the lack of facilities, opportunities for training and skills for using technology are lacking.
Most teachers reported that they used computers at their institutions (n = 48) and at home (n = 44). Only 11 teachers indicated they went to Internet cafes (easily available throughout Egypt), though many noted that their students accessed computers at Internet cafes. Only a few teachers used technology tools regularly
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for instruction. Most teachers (n = 52) reported that they received some training to use technology. Teachers in one private institution reported that their institution supported them.
Rather than preparing teachers to apply technology in their classrooms, most training was for development-organization-sponsored scholarships to the United States, attendance at workshops in Egypt sponsored by EgypTESOL (the national TESOL affiliate in Egypt) or by a foreign agency sponsor. Other than informal training or self-training, no teachers reported experiences with Egyptian-sponsored or Egyptian-led training experiences. Just as worrisome, 17 teachers reported that they received no teacher training in technology use.
The overall results from this study have implications in four areas of EFL in Egypt: learning, teaching, research, and teacher education.
Overall Results
Having itemized the results for each section of the survey, we were able to interpret the responses in terms of our questions on the role of technology in English language learning, teaching, teacher education, and research. We summarize these interpretations in Table 13 and discuss them in detail below.
Learning
Based on the findings of this survey, teachers believe that English language learners gain both linguistically and affectively from technology use. Therefore, teachers use these tools to teach English in Egyptian universities. Teachers sometimes communicate with students using email.
Teaching
Teachers use computers mainly for educational purposes: for preparing lessons and materials, writing their own research, and developing other classroom applications. Some teachers learn about computers with colleagues; others work on their own. A small number have taken courses on CALL, mostly abroad. In many cases, teachers do not have access to computers at home; some do not have access to computers at work. Time constraints are also a reality for teachers; they see computer use to be time consuming and avoid it. That teachers' salary scales are low does not help the situation.
Teacher Education
National universities hire graduates of the Faculty of Arts to teach in their English programs. These instructors have a variety of areas of expertise--linguistics and literatures being the most common. Typically, graduates of the Faculty of Education are not assigned teaching positions in national Egyptian universities. Private universities generally hire teachers who are near-native English speakers with a variety of academic preparation and, in some cases, a postgraduate degree (MA in English or TEFL). The following brief description of teacher education in Egypt,
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and the somewhat infrequent inclusion of knowledge and skills in the use of computers and technology, provide a background for the presentation of the data in the current study.
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In the national university Faculties of Education (pre-service) teacher education programs contain limited exposure to computers or technology applications in language teaching and learning. Where it does exist, the majority of coursework in these programs address how to use computers rather than how to teach English using computers effectively. Content includes such basic information as how to
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use a mouse, how to log on to the Internet, and how to access web sites using search engines.
Few courses help teachers develop skills to make practical use of computers for instructional purposes. Often, these courses are offered by foreign aid projects. Teacher education instructional models used in these courses vary: face-to-face teaching in a traditional classroom or a "smart classroom," online teacher education workshops and modules, synchronous and asynchronous computer-mediated communication, and hands-on experiences with software packages and web-based tools. The majority of these courses are presented as in-service training; some include travel to the US or UK, but most take place in Egypt.
The content of these courses includes orientation to a variety of computer skills useful to the language teacher: how to access teaching materials on the web, how to develop materials for students of different ages and levels of proficiency in all skill areas. Often teacher education in the use of technology applications is linked with one or another educational agenda on which the funding agent has focused. For example, a project funded by the US government's Agency for International Development (AID) sent a group of university-level English teachers to the US for training in line with the broader goal of supporting university educational initiatives in Egypt.
As is the case in many developing countries, large classes at national universities in Egypt create a disincentive for teachers to learn new skills. Large class size is often given as an explanation for teachers' failure to gain new skills. Further, the curriculum--with its somewhat rigid content--and the traditional testing procedures currently in place make it difficult for teacher training programs to justify the addition of courses and course content that focus on computer applications in language teaching.
Private universities in Egypt offer a variety of opportunities and incentives for English language teachers. Teachers are encouraged to participate in in-service workshops and attend conference presentations in Egypt and elsewhere in order to improve their skills and knowledge in applying technology in the classroom. One postgraduate degree program has a dedicated elective course on CALL, and another provides teachers with funding and release time to attend local and regional conferences on the topic of technology in English language teaching. Other private institutions bring guest lecturers for workshops and anticipate new markets with online instructional programming. In line with such academic developmental goals, these institutions provide online training for teachers.
In short, there is a vast difference between the national and private universities' approaches to providing teachers with the necessary skills and knowledge for effective use of technology in the English language classroom. In part, the present study was designed to understand the effects of the various training models on effective English language teaching and learning in Egypt.
With a better understanding of some specific issues in technology use in English language teaching in Egypt, we were now in a position to better answer the two questions posed at the outset.
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Question #1
What can survey research tell us about the use of technology in English teaching in Egypt?
In our survey research effort, volunteer teacher respondents were willing to participate. However, teachers in private universities were more forthcoming than those in the national universities. In more than one case, teachers of elementary-aged children wanted to participate in the study. In another case, a teacher offered to take back the survey from Cairo to her small city so that she could help us with the research. This teacher has become very interested in the topic after having completed the survey herself. Some teachers filled out the survey on email and returned it promptly. Unfortunately, these are the exception and not the rule; we were expecting well over 100 respondents but only had 62. In six cities to which we traveled and arranged for data collection, some teachers did not come to the appointed time and place to complete the survey. A relative lack of interest and understanding about research is a problem in survey research among English teachers in Egypt. Teachers and supervisors often lack familiarity with and commitment to finding answers to questions on technology use.
The following brief narratives describe examples of the challenges faced by researchers in collecting data in national Egyptian universities:
Following three phone calls and a meeting confirming permission and specific plans for supporting her efforts to do so, a research assistant was sent to a conference to collect data. She was unable to do so because the conference organizer (originally contacted to arrange for the data collection) had left the conference early and could not be located.
We went to a city far from Cairo on a time and date to which we agreed with a university department head only to discover that, when we arrived, no teachers showed up for the meeting we and the supervisor had scheduled.
We mailed surveys that were lost in the mail.
Other failed efforts to obtain survey data included long train or road trips, with returns of only one or two useable surveys.
The logistics of doing survey research in Egypt are many and complex. These contribute to a relative lack of survey research from this region. In part, the purpose of the present study was to address this lack. Teachers in Egypt receive very low salaries (as little as 700 LE, the equivalent of $100 per month) and therefore have little or no incentive to use or learn to use technology tools. Without funds to pay respondents, it is difficult to ask teachers to donate time to fill out surveys. In addition, paying subjects creates other challenges to validity and reliability. Still, many teachers willingly and carefully completed the survey.
In short, the challenges of doing survey research in the Middle East contribute to both a lack of data and a sense of frustration and malaise about doing educational research in general. Although there are many studies which have relied on a survey research model, the validity and reliability of those has been addressed
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elsewhere and cannot be ignored (e.g., see the research on cultural modeling descriptions of transfer of information technology among Arabic speakers by Khalil, 1997; Straub, Loch, & Hill, 2001).
In the current study, teachers saw technology tools to be useful and relevant to their work. They reported that they believed technology tools are worth the time, money and effort it takes to use them. Still, many teachers do not apply this thinking to their daily classroom instructional work. For those who did, the following specific topics were identified by teachers as useful for their purposes: learning to assess web sites for use in the classroom, less use of software and more use of freeware on the web, and general ways of using technology for professional improvement.
Question #2
What recommendations might be made based on this research to improve effective technology use for English language teaching in universities in Egypt?
Based on this study's findings and in view of the significant and direct interest and motivation to learn to use technology as a part of effective English language instruction, the following recommendations are offered:
1. University English language programs in Egypt should offer teachers better compensation in order to develop skills in technology applications in the classroom. In the absence of such a financial commitment, some teachers will continue to build skills on their own; a few will move slowly in the direction of learning; and the majority is likely to take fewer risks to add technology tools to their instructional programs. Teachers who describe themselves to be "strugglers" are working hardest to "get through it" when opportunities present themselves to use technology. Training is needed to support "strugglers" in particular.
2. University English language program curriculum and testing in Egypt should be flexible enough to include requirements for technology-based instruction.
3. English language teachers in universities in Egypt should be encouraged to use technology and to teach their students to use technology in order to keep pace with the rest of the world.
4. Software and other technological tools are expensive and difficult to acquire in Egypt. Now more than ever, professional associations must take the responsibility to assess, evaluate, and test products. Each product should be rated on specific criteria (e.g. usability, value, level of experience, etc.). Getting a high grade from the association would appear as, and indeed would be, an endorsement. Association group purchase plans should be negotiated to reduce overall costs and help bring the best products to the field.
In summary, the focus of this study was teacher-reported use of technology in the classroom. The study reveals that teachers in Egypt underutilize technology for instructional purposes in English language classrooms. The ways in which
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teachers prepare for technology use vary among individuals and among universities, but training is often based on teachers' personal initiative.
From this study, it seems clear that teachers perceive a need to know how to use technology. More research is needed to identify in more depth what it is that teachers do, what they think they do, and how they perceive student success as a direct result of technology use.
The challenges for implementation of these ideas are obvious for a country with limited resources and overpopulation. Addressing these challenges is unexaggeratedly impossible in the absence of financial support and a carefully designed plan. However, the costs of failing to implement a carefully designed program of technology use in English language teaching in universities in Egypt are likely more significant.
CONCLUSION
On the basis of the responses from teachers in Egyptian universities in the current study, English teachers in Egypt are currently somewhat deprived in access to resources that technology offers the rest of the world. They are ready to use technology. However, limitations in skills and knowledge have significant consequences for English language learning, teaching, teacher education, and research. Teachers in universities in Egypt are aware of both the need for additional knowledge and skills in the area of technology use in the EFL classroom, as well as the consequences of their and their students continued deprivation of technology. In particular, the absence of effective teacher education that includes responsible instruction on the use and evaluation of technological tools in the EFL classroom in Egypt leaves teachers behind. Without this essential part of teacher education, students will also be left behind. In the absence of teachers trained to use technological tools in the classroom, EFL students will be unable to learn English as fast and effectively as they could with technology or as fast and effectively as their fellow students across the globe.
From our study, it seems clear that teachers play the most important role in this situation. If teachers have the tools they need, they will use them. With training on how to use those tools, they will bring students the rich opportunities that technology offers.
New software applications are being developed almost on a daily basis, and the vast array of existing products and systems are continually being improved. Classroom teachers in universities in Egypt, as well as in other parts of the world, are the consumers of these products but are not at this time adequately prepared to assess and evaluate them prior to purchase. Especially in the Middle East, where study abroad and other foreign educational opportunities have dwindled to almost none in the post 9/11 era, technology applications for English language proficiency are more critical than ever. Distance learning, online courses, and other tools are essential to students who can no longer go to countries where English is natively spoken and have to rely more and more on the use of Internet-based tools to acquire English.
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Until such time as teachers in Egypt have the knowledge and skills necessary to do so for themselves, outsiders are addressing the next generation of technological tools and the skills needed to use and evaluate them. Less than optimal, this reality serves EFL teachers and students in Egypt poorly. In the interest of building strong, well prepared EFL programs in Egypt, it is the teachers in those programs who should be making the decisions on the use of technology in their programs. A better plan--one which is applied in other national educational settings and has started in some contexts in Egypt, as well--would be for EFL teachers in all tertiary educational settings in Egypt to have the requisite access, knowledge, and skills necessary to develop programs that serve the needs of their students and programs.
REFERENCES
United Nations Development Programme Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development. (2003). Arab human development report 2003. Building a knowledge society. New York: United Nations Publications.
Ahmad, K., Corbett, G., Rogers, M., & Sussez, R. (1987). Computers, language learning and language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Chapelle, C. (2001). Computer applications in second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gahin, G., & Myhill, D. (2001). The communicative approach in Egypt: Exploring the secrets of the pyramids. TEFL Web Journal, 1 (2). Retrieved October 29, 2006, from http://www.teflweb-j.org/v1n2/Gahin_Myhill.html
Holliday, A. (1994). Appropriate methodology and social context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Stevens, V. (2003, January). Teacher professional development in online communities of practice: How does this impact language learning? Keynote address given at the EFL Skills Conference at the American University in Cairo. Retrieved October 29, 2006, from http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Olympus/4631/papers/egypt/tpd_online.htm
Straub, D. W., Loch, K. D., & Hill, C. E. (2001). Transfer of information technology to the Arab world: A test of cultural influence modeling. Journal of Global Information Management, 9 (3), 6-28.
The Egyptian Society for Development and Childhood and the Ministry of Education. (1993). The National conference for developing primary education: The final report for the conference preliminary workshop. Cairo: NCERD.
The Egyptian Society for Development and Childhood and the Ministry of Education. (1996). The National conference for developing preparatory education: The final report for the conference preliminary workshop. Cairo: NCERD.
Warschauer, M. (2003). Technology and social inclusion: Rethinking the digital divide. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
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Warschauer, M., Refaat, G., & Zohry, A. (2000). Language and literacy on line: A study of Egyptian internet users. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association of Applied Linguistics, Vancouver, Canada.
APPENDIX
American University in Cairo
English Language Institute
Spring 2004
(Sponsored in part by a faculty research grant, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, American University in Cairo, Egypt. All rights reserved)
Survey on Technology Applications in English Language Teaching in Egypt
Thank you for agreeing to participate in this survey. The purpose of this survey is to understand how technology is applied in English Language Teaching in Egypt at the beginning of the twenty first century. This understanding should help us in our endeavor to improve in this area. This survey is anonymous and is totally voluntary to answer. We are willing to give you copies of the results if you want to receive them. If you have any query or would like to have a summary of our results, please contact Dr. Liz England
Please mark your answers in the spaces provided.
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1. Please describe how you access a computer:
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2. For what purposes do you use the computer? (Please check and specify all that apply)
Academic research
Professional teaching
Recreational
Other (please specify)
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6. How do you evaluate the technological facilities in your department/institution(s)?
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402
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9.A. Have you ever assigned your students to use the Web?
Yes No
9.B. If yes, what kind of assignment?(Please check all that apply)
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10.A. Do you use email communication?
Yes No
10.B. If yes, please check the appropriate fields in the following table to show the frequency of use with different units:
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11. Have you ever used an instructional software package?
Yes No
If yes, name it:
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12. If and when you take students to a computer lab, what skills do you cover? Please check all that apply.
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13. Which language skills do your students benefit the most from using the Web?
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14. In what other skills/competences do your students improve by using he Web?
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15. What do you think is the effect of using technology on your students? (Please check all the phrases that apply.)
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16.A. Do you ever use technology in testing your students?
Yes No
16.B. If so, how?
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16.C. If yes, how often?
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17. Do you think there should be a kind of censorship if we incorporate the Internet in language teaching? Yes No
Please specify your reasons below. Use the margin if you need more space.
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18. Do you find incorporating technology in language teaching worth the following (check all that apply and cite reasons):
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19.A. Does the university/institution prepare workshops relevant to using technology in teaching? Yes No
19.B. If yes, please specify.
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19.C. If no, what topics would you recommend for relevant workshops?
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20. How, if at all, are you encouraged by your program or institution/university's administration to use technology in class?
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Comments section: If you have additional comments or suggestions on the use of technology in English language taching, please write them here:
Technological Facilities (Machines)
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CALL software:
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Web:
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AUTHOR'S ADDRESS
Liz England
Department of English
Hong Kong Institute of Education
10 Lo Ping Road
Tai Po, New Territories, Hong Kong
Email: lengland@ied.edu.hk, lizeslhongkong@yahoo.com
Retrieved on December 20, 2010 from https://www.calico.org/memberBrowse.php?action=article&id=650
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